Botany

thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Image of ripe nutmeg fruit split open to show red aril|The fruit of Myristica fragrans, a species native to [[Indonesia, is the source of two valuable spices, the red aril (mace) enclosing the dark brown nutmeg.]]

thumb|upright=1.5|Schematic of photosynthesis in plants. The carbohydrates produced are stored in or used by the plant. upright=1.5|thumb|right|Composite image showing the global distribution of photosynthesis, including both oceanic phytoplankton and terrestrial [[vegetation. Dark red and blue-green indicate regions of high photosynthetic activity in the ocean and on land, respectively.]]

thumb|350px| Micrograph|Photomicrograph of various seeds

right|300px|thumb|A Abies alba|silver fir shoot showing three successive years of retained leaves thumb|304x304px|Cupressus sempervirens (Mediterranean cypress), an evergreen tree In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has foliage that remains green and functional throughout the year. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which lose their foliage completely during the winter or dry season. Consisting of many different species, the unique feature of evergreen plants lends itself to various environments and purposes.

In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, after flowering; and to the shedding of ripe fruit. The antonym of deciduous in the botanical sense is evergreen.

thumb|Casuarina equisetifolia litter completely suppresses germination of [[understory plants as shown here despite the relative openness of the canopy and ample rainfall (>120 cm/yr) at the location.]]

study and use of medicinal properties of plants

Photoperiod is the change of day length over the seasons. Earth's rotation around its axis produces 24-hour changes in light (daytime) and dark (night) cycles on Earth. The length of the light and dark in each phase varies across the seasons due to the axial tilt of Earth. The photoperiod defines the length of the light. For example, in summer the length of light could be 16 hours while the dark is 8 hours, whereas in winter the length of day could be 8 hours, while the dark is 16 hours. Importantly, the axial tilt of the Earth causes the opposing seasons in the Northern and Southern Hemispher

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Ecotypes, or ecospecies, are organisms which belong to the same species but possess different phenotypical features as a result of environmental factors such as elevation, climate and predation. Ecotypes can be seen in wide geographical distributions and may eventually lead to speciation.

right|thumb|Flower bud of a Capsicum pubescens plant, with many trichomes thumb|Fossil stellate hair (trichome) probably of an oak, in [[Baltic amber; image is about wide.]]

physiologic study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for the metabolism and normal life of plants

subdiscipline of ecology, studies the abundance and distribution of plants

Phytochemistry is the study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants. Phytochemists strive to describe the structures of the large number of secondary metabolites found in plants, the functions of these compounds in human and plant biology, and the biosynthesis of these compounds. Plants synthesize phytochemicals for many reasons, including to protect themselves against insect attacks and plant diseases. The compounds found in plants are of many kinds, but most can be grouped into four major biosynthetic classes: alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, polyketides, and terpenoids.

thumb|Vitis labrusca

thumb|Bee pollinating a flower thumb|Soldier beetle covered with pollen

ground tissue is one of three main tissue systems: protective, ground, and vascular, each tissue system has a different role and functionality inside plant tissues

first species to colonize or inhabite damaged ecosystems

thumb|upright=1.25|petrified wood|Tree remains that have undergone petrifaction, as seen in [[Petrified Forest National Park]]

tubular cell projection that is part of a pollen tube cell and extends from a pollen grain

classification of plants and animals

thumb|275px|Wyethia helianthoides or mule's ear wildflower (on right) showing fasciation thumb|200px|A "crested" saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea), resulting from fasciation, located at Saguaro National Park (West), Arizona, U.S. Fasciation (pronounced , from the Latin root meaning "band" or "stripe"), also known as cresting, is a relatively rare condition of abnormal growth in vascular plants in which the apical meristem (growing tip), which normally is concentrated around a single point and produces approximately cylindrical tissue, instead becomes elongated perpendicularly to the directio

thumb |400px |Daisies (Bellis perennis) face the Sun after opening in the morning and will follow the Sun through the day. Heliotropism, a form of tropism, is the diurnal or seasonal motion of plant parts (flowers or leaves) in response to the direction of the Sun.

growth medium for plant cell culture

thumb|230px|Monotropa uniflora, an obligate myco-heterotroph known to parasitize fungi belonging to the [[Russulaceae.]]

thumb|Rhododendron ponticum is an example of a species which recolonised central and northern Europe following the Ice Ages. An archaeophyte is a plant species which is non-native to a geographical region, but which was an introduced species in "ancient" times, rather than being a modern introduction. Those arriving after are called neophytes.

thumb|375px|right|Dioscorides' De Materia Medica (Dioscorides)|De Materia Medica, [[Byzantium, 15th-century manuscript, by which time the text had been in circulation for about 1500 years]]

plant species that is first to colonize disturbed lands

Bioprospecting (also known as biodiversity prospecting) is the exploration of natural sources for small molecules, macromolecules and biochemical and genetic information that could be developed into commercially valuable products for the agricultural, aquaculture, bioremediation, cosmetics, nanotechnology, or pharmaceutical industries. In the pharmaceutical industry, for example, almost one third of all small-molecule drugs approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) between 1981 and 2014 were either natural products or compounds derived from natural products.

drawing or painted image of plants and their components

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The exodermis is a physiological barrier that has a role in root function and protection.  The exodermis is a membrane of variable permeability responsible for the radial flow of water, ions, and nutrients. It is the outer layer of a plant's cortex. The exodermis serves a double function as it can protect the root from invasion by foreign pathogens and ensures that the plant does not lose too much water through diffusion through the root system and can properly replenish its stores at an appropriate rate.

rights granted to the breeder of a new variety of plant that give the breeder exclusive control

upright=1.35|thumb|Pseudomyrmex ferruginea ants on a myrmecophyte tree, [[Vachellia cornigera, the bullhorn acacia of Central America]]

non-native plant species introduced in recent history

A chemotype (sometimes chemovar) is a chemically distinct entity in a plant or microorganism, with differences in the composition of the secondary metabolites. Minor genetic and epigenetic changes with little or no effect on morphology or anatomy may produce large changes in the chemical phenotype. Chemotypes are often defined by the most abundant chemical produced by that individual and the concept has been useful in work done by chemical ecologists and natural product chemists. With respect to plant biology, the term "chemotype" was coined by Rolf Santesson and his son Johan in 1968, defined

thumb|upright=1.7|right| The plant aerial surface, mostly occupied by leaves, is inhabited by diverse microorganisms, forming the phyllosphere

process by which structures originate and mature as a plant grows

A bioeffector is a viable microorganism or active natural compound which directly or indirectly affects plant performance (biofertilizer), and thus has the potential to reduce fertilizer and pesticide use in crop production.

thumb|Crescograph, Bose Institute, Kolkata A crescograph is a device for measuring growth in plants. It was invented in the early 20th century by Jagadish Chandra Bose.

chemical compound

thumb|Botanist Justin Paillot with a vasculum thumb|Vasculum A vasculum or a botanical box is a stiff container used by botanists to keep field samples viable for transportation. The main purpose of the vasculum is to transport plants without crushing them and by maintaining a cool, humid environment.

garden plan with flowers that open at different times of the day hypothesized by Carl Linnaeus

thumb|upright=1.2|Geocarpy in Spigelia genuflexa thumb|Peanut fruit have formed below the ground.

term in botany

Semi-deciduous or semi-evergreen is a botanical term which refers to plants that lose their foliage for a very short period, when old leaves fall off and new foliage growth is starting. This phenomenon occurs in tropical and sub-tropical woody species, for example in Dipteryx odorata. Semi-deciduous or semi-evergreen may also describe some trees, bushes or plants that normally only lose part of their foliage in autumn/winter or during the dry season, but might lose all their leaves in a manner similar to deciduous trees in an especially cold autumn/winter or severe dry season (drought).

plant cell wall that is no longer able to expand and so does not permit growth. Secondary cell walls contain less pectin than that of primary cell walls. The secondary cell is mostly composed of cellulose and is strengthened with lignin

thumb|270px|poppy|Poppies are hemerochoric plants that belong to the [[archaeophytes.]] Hemerochory (Ancient Greek ἥμερος, hemeros: 'tame, ennobled, cultivated, cultivated' and Greek χωρίς choris: separate, isolated), or anthropochory, is the distribution of cultivated plants or their seeds and cuttings, consciously or unconsciously, by humans into an area that they could not colonize through their natural mechanisms of spread, but are able to maintain themselves without specific human help in their new habitat.

negative impact of non-living factors on the living organisms in a specific environment

thumb|right|300px|Cross section though a soybean (Glycine max 'Essex') root nodule: The rhizobacteria, Bradyrhizobium|Bradyrhizobium japonicum, colonizes the roots and establishes a nitrogen-fixing symbiosis. This high-magnification image shows part of a cell with single bacteroids within their host plant. In this image, endoplasmic reticulum, dictysome, and cell wall can be seen.

evolutionary theory developed by J. P. Grime based on the trade-off between growth, maintenance and regeneration

Pl@ntNet is a citizen science project for automatic plant identification through photographs and based on machine learning. Users take a photograph, and the system can identify it as one of more than 77,000 plant species. Pl@ntNet has processed more than a billion photographs from users.

scientific journey or voyage designed to explore the flora of a particular region

schemes for classifying vegetation communities

vegetation in tropical latitudes

study of flower structures

chronological outline of major events in the development of plants