Incremental dating

thumb|The growth rings of a tree at Bristol Zoo, [[England. Each ring represents one year; the outside rings, near the bark, are the youngest]] thumb|A "tree cookie" cross-section of a Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii|Coast Douglas-fir tree displayed in the [[Royal Ontario Museum. The tree was over 500 years old when it was cut down in British Columbia in the 1890s. The markings indicating historical events were added in the 1920s.]] Dendrochronology (or tree-ring dating) is the scientific method of dating tree rings (also called growth rings) to the exact year they were formed in a tree.

core sample of ice, typically removed from a glacier or ice sheet

thumb|upright=1.35|Pleistocene glacial lake varves at Sandend Bay in Scotland A varve is an annual layer of sediment or sedimentary rock.

thumb|upright=1.4|Cave labeled with the six most common types of speleothems: flowstone, columns, drapery, [[stalagmites, stalactites and straws]] A speleothem (; ) is a geological formation made by mineral deposits that accumulate over time in natural caves. They can take a variety of forms, depending on their depositional history and environment. Common forms include stalagmites, stalactites, and flowstones.

250px|thumb|right|Tephra horizons in south-central Iceland. The thick and light coloured layer at the height of the [[volcanologist's hands is rhyolitic tephra from Hekla.]]

thumb|right|Lichen grown in a Mickey Mouse shape thumb|right|13 years later thumb|right|17 years later In archaeology, palaeontology, and geomorphology, lichenometry is a geomorphic method of geochronologic dating that uses lichen growth to determine the age of exposed rock, based on a presumed specific rate of increase in radial size over time. Measuring the diameter of the largest lichen of a species on a rock surface can therefore be used to determine the length of time the rock has been exposed. Lichen can be preserved on old rock faces for up to 10,000 years, providing the maximum age lim

establishing the age of archaeological artifacts based on remanence magnetism

thumb|right|240px|alt=A brown rock or sediment face with horizontal layers, 18 of which are clearly visible. Some of the layers are obviously thicker than others - presumably the result of differences in annual deposition rates due to seasonal variations.|Pleistocene age varves at [[Scarborough Bluffs, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The thickest varves are close to 2 cm thick. ]] A rhythmite consists of layers of sediment or sedimentary rock which are laid down with an obvious periodicity and regularity. They may be created by annual processes such as seasonally varying deposits reflecting variatio