Scientific method

Research is creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge. It involves the collection, organization, and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities are characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project may be an expansion of past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.

thumb|right|350px|The hypothesis of Andreas Cellarius, showing the planetary motions in eccentric and epicyclical [[orbits]]

techniques used in the construction and testing of scientific hypotheses; in particular mathematical and experimental techniques employed in the natural sciences

thumb|right|upright=1|Auguste Comte, the founder of modern positivism

thumbnail|Observing the air traffic in Rõuge, [[Estonia]]

Causality is an influence by which one event, process, state, or subject (i.e., a cause) contributes to the production of another event, process, state, or object (i.e., an effect) where the cause is at least partly responsible for the effect, and the effect is at least partly dependent on the cause. The cause of something may also be described as the reason behind the event or process.

thumb|Adriaen van Ostade, "Analysis" (1666)

thumb|''The Old Farmer's Almanac'' is famous in the U.S. for its (not necessarily accurate) long-range weather predictions.

explanation of some aspect of the natural world which can be tested and corroborated

statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes some aspects of the universe

in statistics and (including qualitative) research, a term for the selection of data points from a larger population

Scientism is the belief that science and the scientific method are the best or only way to render truth about the world and reality.

activity for gaining insight from data

intensive analysis of an individual unit stressing developmental factors in relation to context

thumb|Portrait of Horace Walpole by [[Joshua Reynolds, 1756]]Serendipity is an unplanned fortunate discovery. The term was coined by Horace Walpole in 1754.

process of deducing properties of an underlying probability distribution by analysis of data

classification that describes the nature of information within the numbers assigned to variables

physical law

experiment in which information about the test is masked to reduce bias

Reproducibility, closely related to replicability and repeatability, is a major principle underpinning the scientific method. For the findings of a study to be reproducible means that results obtained by an experiment or an observational study or in a statistical analysis of a data set should be achieved again with a high degree of reliability when the study is replicated. There are different kinds of replication but typically replication studies involve different researchers using the same methodology. Only after one or several such successful replications should a result be recognized as sci

In the philosophy of science, protoscience ( protoscientific) is a research field that has the characteristics of an undeveloped science that may ultimately develop into an established science. Philosophers use protoscience to understand the history of science and distinguish protoscience from science and pseudoscience.

process of evaluating an information source

ethical practice concerning scientific research

thumb|right|300px|An example of operationally defining personal space In research design, especially in psychology, social sciences, life sciences and physics, operationalization (or operationalisation) is a process of defining the measurement of a phenomenon which is not directly measurable, though its existence is inferred from other phenomena. Operationalization thus defines a fuzzy concept so as to make it clearly distinguishable, measurable, and understandable by empirical observation. In a broader sense, it defines the extension of a concept—describing what is and is not an instance of t

selection of individuals, groups or data for analysis such that proper randomization is not achieved

evidence which either supports or counters a scientific hypothesis

practice that relies on evidence to form arguments for guidance and decision-making

law stating that no scientific discovery is named after its original discoverer

ongoing methodological crisis in science stemming from failure to replicate many studies

proposed description of the scientific method

inquiry in an established field of study which departs significantly from mainstream theories in that field and is considered to be questionable by the mainstream

small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate feasibility, duration, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a full-scale research project

Metascience (also known as meta-research) is the use of scientific methodology to study science itself. Metascience seeks to increase the quality of scientific research and enhance its efficiency. It is also known as "research on research" and "the science of science", as it uses research methods to study how research is done and find where improvements can be made. Metascience concerns itself with all fields of research and has been described as "a bird's eye view of science". In the words of John Ioannidis, "Science is the best thing that has happened to human beings... but we can do it bett

In science and history, consilience (also convergence of evidence or concordance of evidence) is the principle that evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions. That is, when multiple sources of evidence are in agreement, the conclusion can be very strong even when none of the individual sources of evidence is significantly so on its own. Most established scientific knowledge is supported by a convergence of evidence: if not, the evidence is comparatively weak, and there will probably not be a strong scientific consensus.

subject or observation selected to minimize the effects of variables other than the independent variable of an experiment

thumb|upright=1.35|Diana and Actaeon (Titian)|Diana and Actaeon by [[Titian has a full provenance covering its passage through several owners and four countries since it was painted for Philip II of Spain in the 1550s.]]

an experiment capable of decisively determining whether or not a particular hypothesis or theory is superior to all other hypotheses or theories whose acceptance is currently widespread in the scientific community

use of probability and logic to deal with uncertain situations

PubPeer is a website that allows users to discuss and review scientific research after publication, i.e. post-publication peer review, established in 2012.

Testability is a primary aspect of science and the scientific method. There are two components to testability: Falsifiability or defeasibility, which means that counterexamples to the hypothesis are logically possible. The practical feasibility of observing a reproducible series of such counterexamples if they do exist.

predefined written procedural method in the design and implementation of experiments in natural sciences

Method of determining the quantity of chemical substances

ideal object, whose existence depends upon a subject's mind

scientific methodology

method of nursing care

Philosophical ideals for the practice of science

research study in which both the researcher and the participant know which treatment is being used

Pseudoskepticism (also spelled as pseudoscepticism) is a philosophical or scientific position that appears to be that of skepticism or scientific skepticism but in reality is a form of dogmatism.

process of collecting reviews of a scholarly work by scholars in the relevant field

The study of human behaviour and experience with the paranormal, with the assumption that there is nothing paranormal involved

frequent citation of previous publications that lack evidence misleads individuals, groups, and the public into thinking or believing there is evidence

use of science on urgent issues involving uncertainty in facts and moral values

summary of research

procedure to independently assess the methodological quality of a clinical trial

view on the purpose of philosophy

HARKing (hypothesizing after the results are known) is an acronym coined by social psychologist Norbert Kerr that refers to the questionable research practice of "presenting a post hoc hypothesis in the introduction of a research report as if it were an a priori hypothesis". Hence, a key characteristic of HARKing is that post hoc hypothesizing is falsely portrayed as a priori hypothesizing. HARKing may occur when a researcher tests an a priori hypothesis but then omits that hypothesis from their research report after they find out the results of their test. Post hoc analysis or post hoc theori

concept in research ethics

Self-experimentation refers to single-subject research in which the experimenter conducts the experiment on themself.

theory of science, reconstructing empirical theories

aspect of history outlining changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, as distinct from the history of science itself