Philosophical skepticism

Madhyamaka (; ; , chữ Nôm: ; ) also known as Madhyamika () refers to a tradition of Buddhist philosophy and practice founded by the Indian Buddhist monk and philosopher Nāgārjuna (). The foundational text of the Mādhyamaka tradition is Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā ("Root Verses on the Middle Way"). More broadly, Madhyamaka also refers to the ultimate nature of phenomena as well as the non-conceptual realization of ultimate reality that is experienced in meditation.

thumb|Aristippus of Cyrene

Pyrrhonism is an Ancient Greek school of philosophical skepticism which rejects dogma and advocates the suspension of judgement over the truth of all beliefs. It was founded by Aenesidemus in the first century BCE, and said to have been inspired by the teachings of Pyrrho and Timon of Phlius in the fourth century BCE.

questioning the possibility of certainty, or of judgement, due to inadequate evidence

thumb|349x349px|Charles Sanders Peirce around 1900. Peirce is said to have initiated fallibilism. Originally, fallibilism (from Medieval Latin: fallibilis, "liable to error") is the philosophical principle that propositions can be accepted even though they cannot be conclusively proven or justified, or that neither knowledge nor belief is certain. The term was coined in the late nineteenth century by the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce, as a response to foundationalism. Theorists, following Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper, may also refer to fallibilism as the notion that k

epistemological question of whether inductive reasoning leads to definitive knowledge understood in the classic philosophical sense

form of methodological skepticism associated with the writings and methodology of René Descartes

thought experiment about the impossibility of proving any truth: in response to repeated "but why?"s, only the circular argument, infinite regress, or axiomatic argument are possible

Doxa (; from verb ) is a common belief or popular opinion. In classical rhetoric, doxa is contrasted with episteme ('knowledge').

German philosopher (1761-1833)

Contextualism, also known as epistemic contextualism, is a family of views in philosophy which emphasize the context in which an action, utterance, or expression occurs. Proponents of contextualism argue that, in some important respect, the action, utterance, or expression can only be understood relative to that context. Contextualist views hold that philosophically controversial concepts, such as "meaning P", "knowing that P", "having a reason to A", and possibly even "being true" or "being right" only have meaning relative to a specified context. Other philosophers contend that context-depen

period circa 266—90 BCE investigating the possibilities of certainty in all knowledge

ethical theory

argument that the act of dreaming provides preliminary evidence that the senses should not be fully truste

Ajñāna (, (Vedic) IPA: /ɐd͡ʑ.ɲɑː.nɐ/; (Classical) IPA: /ɐd͡ʑˈɲɑː.n̪ɐ/) is an ancient nāstika, or 'heterodox,' Indian school of agnosticism that embraces radical skepticism. It emerged as a Śramaṇa movement and was a major rival of early Buddhism, Jainism and the Ājīvika school. They have been recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They specialized in refutation without pr

Pseudoskepticism (also spelled as pseudoscepticism) is a philosophical or scientific position that appears to be that of skepticism or scientific skepticism but in reality is a form of dogmatism.

Anti-foundationalism (also called nonfoundationalism) is any philosophy which rejects a foundationalist approach. An anti-foundationalist is one who does not believe that there is some fundamental belief or principle which is the basic ground or foundation of inquiry and knowledge.

Antiphilosophy is an opposition to traditional philosophy. It may be characterized as anti-theoretical, critical of a priori justifications, and may see common philosophical problems as misconceptions that are to be dissolved. Common strategies may involve forms of relativism, skepticism, nihilism, or pluralism.

philosophical essay by Miguel de Unamuno

cognitive process and a rational state of mind