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'''''' was the standard of nominating civil officers started by the Wu Emperor of the Han in 134 BC. It lasted until its replacement by the imperial examination system during the Sui dynasty.

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'''''' was the standard of nominating civil officers started by the Wu Emperor of the Han in 134 BC. It lasted until its replacement by the imperial examination system during the Sui dynasty.

In the Confucian philosophy adopted by the Han in opposition to their Legalist Qin predecessors, filial piety is the fundamental virtue. Endless gratitude and respect for one's parents and ancestors, properly expressed, were considered to inculcate proper personal, social, and political virtues as well.

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