Toxins

Graphene () is a variety of the element carbon which occurs naturally in small amounts. In graphene, the carbon forms a sheet of interlocked atoms as hexagons one carbon atom thick. The result resembles the face of a honeycomb. When many hundreds of graphene layers build up, they are called graphite.

thumb|336x336px|The Amanita muscaria mushroom, an iconic toxic mushroom.

Ricin ( ) is a lectin (a carbohydrate-binding protein) and a highly potent toxin produced in the seeds of the castor oil plant, Ricinus communis. The median lethal dose (LD50) of ricin for mice is around 22 micrograms per kilogram of body mass via intraperitoneal injection. Oral exposure to ricin is far less toxic. An estimated lethal oral dose in humans is approximately one milligram per kilogram of body mass.

thumb|upright=1.35|Wasp [[stinger with a droplet of venom]]

thumb|373x373px| This figure shows that exotoxins are secreted by bacterial cells, Clostridium botulinum for example, and are toxic to somatic cells. Somatic cells have antibody|antibodies on the cell wall to target exotoxins and bind to them, preventing the invasion of somatic cells. The binding of the exotoxin and antibody forms an antigen-antibody interaction and the exotoxins are targeted for destruction by the immune system. If this interaction does not happen, the exotoxins bind to the [[exotoxin receptors that are on the cell surface and causes death of the host cell by inhibiting prote

thumb|Methylation reaction of mercury under sunlight thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Structures of two main types of complexes formed by methylmercury. X− = anion, L = neutral Lewis base.

toxic solution of 28% sodium chlorite in distilled water

thumb|400px|Low Ca2+ buffering and excitotoxicity under physiological stress and pathophysiological conditions in motor neuron (MNs). Low Ca2+ buffering in ALS|amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) vulnerable hypoglossal MNs exposes mitochondria to higher Ca2+ loads compared to highly buffered cells. Under normal physiological conditions, the neurotransmitter opens glutamate, NMDA and AMPA receptor channels, and voltage dependent Ca2+ channels (VDCC) with high glutamate release, which is taken up again by EAAT1 and EAAT2. This results in a small rise in [[intracellular calcium that can be buffer

300px|thumb| Reactions of peroxynitrite leading to either apoptotic or necrotic cell death Peroxynitrite (sometimes called peroxonitrite) is an ion with the formula ONOO−. It is a structural isomer of nitrate, . Peroxynitrite is a potent reactive nitrogen species and is highly cytotoxic.

Sanguinarine is a polycyclic quaternary alkaloid. It is extracted from some plants, including the bloodroot plant (Sanguinaria canadensis, from whose scientific name its name is derived), the Mexican prickly poppy (Argemone mexicana), Chelidonium majus, and Macleaya cordata.

chemical compound

Solenopsin is a lipophilic alkaloid with the molecular formula C17H35N found in the venom of fire ants (Solenopsis). It is considered the primary toxin in the venom and may be the component responsible for the cardiorespiratory failure in people who experience excessive fire ant stings.

NAPQI, also known as NAPBQI or '''N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine,''' is a toxic byproduct produced during the xenobiotic metabolism of the analgesic paracetamol (acetaminophen). It is normally produced only in small amounts, and then almost immediately detoxified in the liver.

Menthofuran is an organic compound found in a variety of essential oils including that of pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium). It is highly toxic and believed to be the primary toxin in pennyroyal responsible for its potentially fatal effects. After ingestion of menthofuran, it is metabolically activated to chemically reactive intermediates that are hepatotoxic.

biological process

Higenamine (norcoclaurine) is a chemical compound found in a variety of plants including Nandina domestica (fruit), Aconitum carmichaelii (root), Asarum heterotropioides, Galium divaricatum (stem and vine), Annona squamosa, and Nelumbo nucifera (lotus seeds).

type of poisoning

chemical compound