Fungal morphology and anatomy

thumb|300px|Spores produced in a sporic life cycle thumb|300px|Fresh snow partially covers rough-stalked feather-moss (Bryopsida|Brachythecium rutabulum), growing on a thinned hybrid black poplar (Populus x canadensis). The last stage of the moss lifecycle is shown, where the [[sporophytes are visible before dispersion of their spores: the calyptra (1) is still attached to the capsule (3). The tops of the gametophytes (2) can be discerned as well. Inset shows the surrounding, black poplars growing on sandy loam on the bank of a kolk, with the detail area marked.]]

Mycelium (: mycelia) is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Its normal form is that of branched, slender, entangled, anastomosing, hyaline threads. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates into monokaryotic mycelium, which cannot reproduce sexually; when two compatible monokaryotic mycelia join and form dikaryotic mycelium, that mycelium may form fruiting bodies such as mushrooms. Mycelium may be minute, forming a colony that is too small to see, or may grow to

thumb|Hyphae of Penicillium thumb|Fungal hyphae cells: (1) Hyphal wall. (2) Septum (cell biology)|Septum. (3) [[Mitochondrion. (4) Vacuole. (5) Ergosterol crystal. (6) Ribosome. (7) Nucleus. (8) Endoplasmic reticulum. (9) Lipid body. (10) Plasma membrane. (11) Spitzenkörper. (12) Golgi apparatus]] thumb|Hyphae growing on tomato sauce (the pale oblong objects to the side are [[rice grains)]] thumb|Aspergillus niger thumb|conidium|Conidia on conidiophores

A sporangium (from Late Latin, ; : sporangia) is an enclosure in which spores are formed. It can be composed of a single cell or can be multicellular. Virtually all plants, fungi, and many other groups form sporangia at some point in their life cycle. Sporangia can produce spores by mitosis, but in land plants and many fungi, sporangia produce genetically distinct haploid spores by meiosis.

thumb|300x300px|Thallus of Pellia epiphylla Thallus (: thalli), from Latinized Greek (), meaning "a green shoot" or "twig", is the vegetative tissue of some organisms in diverse groups such as algae, fungi, some liverworts, lichens, and the Myxogastria. A thallus usually names the entire body of a multicellular non-moving organism in which there is no organization of the tissues into organs. Many of these organisms were previously known as the thallophytes, a polyphyletic group of distantly related organisms. An organism or structure resembling a thallus is called thalloid, thalloidal, thallif

fungal structure on which spore-producing structures are borne

in fungi, stalk that supports some other structure

thumb|right|500px|Diagram showing a basidiomycete mushroom, gill structure, and spore-bearing basidia on the gill margins.

cap-like part of a mushroom

Rhizoids are protuberances that extend from the lower epidermal cells of bryophytes and algae. They are similar in structure and function to the root hairs of vascular land plants. Similar structures are formed by some fungi. Rhizoids may be unicellular or multicellular.

The hymenium is the tissue layer on the hymenophore of a fungal fruiting body where the cells develop into basidia or asci, which produce spores. In some species all of the cells of the hymenium develop into basidia or asci, while in others some cells develop into sterile cells called cystidia (basidiomycetes) or paraphyses (ascomycetes). Cystidia are often important for microscopic identification. The subhymenium consists of the supportive hyphae from which the cells of the hymenium grow, beneath which is the hymenophoral trama, the hyphae that make up the mass of the hymenophore.

natural trace of the circular growth front of mushroom mycelium

papery hymenophore rib under the cap of some mushroom species

thumb|Conidia on conidiophores thumb|Chain of conidia of Alternaria thumb|Conidiomata of Cypress canker (probably [[Seiridium cardinale) erupting on a Thuja twig]]

thumb|The underside of a fertile frond of Dicksonia antarctica. Each circular brown structure is an individual sorus.

fungi spore print color

thumb|Sclerotia of the ergot species [[Claviceps purpurea developing on wheat spikes]]

thumb|300px|right|Asci of Morchella elata, [[Phase contrast image]] thumb|400px|There are eight ascospores in each ascus of Sordaria fimicola.

A hymenophore refers to the hymenium-bearing structure of a fungal fruiting body. Hymenophores can be smooth surfaces, lamellae, folds, tubes, or teeth. The term was coined by Robert Hooke in 1665.

thumb|Heterokont zoospore of [[Saprolegnia with tinsel and whiplash flagella.|271x271px]] A zoospore is a motile asexual spore that uses a flagellum for locomotion in aqueous or moist environments. Also called a swarm spore, these spores are created by some protists, bacteria, and fungi to propagate themselves. Certain zoospores are infectious and transmittable, such as Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a fungal zoospore that causes high rates of mortality in amphibians.

thumb|right|Prothallus (prothallium) of the fern Polypodium vulgare seen under a light microscope.

In biology, setae (; seta ; ) are any of a number of different bristle- or hair-like structures on living organisms.

thumb|Two chrysocystidia on gill face of Hypholoma lateritium, mounted in KOH. A cystidium (: cystidia) is a relatively large cell found on the sporocarp of a basidiomycete (for example, on the surface of a mushroom gill), often between clusters of basidia. Since cystidia have highly varied and distinct shapes that are often unique to a particular species or genus, they are a useful micromorphological characteristic in the identification of basidiomycetes. In general, the adaptive significance of cystidia is not well understood.

thumb|right|250px|The fly agaric, Amanita muscaria, late August, [[Norway]] An agaric () is a type of fungal fruiting body characterized by the presence of a pileus (cap) that is clearly differentiated from the stipe (stalk), with lamellae (gills) on the underside of the pileus. It is a type of mushroom (or toadstool), the diverse group of agarics being lumped together as gilled mushrooms. "Agaric" can also refer more generally to any basidiomycete species characterized by an agaric-type fruiting body.

fungi that produce and mature spores on the inside of the fruiting body

mycological structure

mushroom flesh

thumbnail|Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis, showing root tips with fungal mycelium from the genus [[Amanita]]

thumb|right|250px|The gleba of the "common earthball" (Scleroderma citrinum) has a dark color.

thumb|right|upright=1.2|alt=Microscope view of a transparent sac (ascus) holding four oval, golden-brown spores. The spores are covered with a raised, net-like pattern that looks like a mosaic of tiny scales.|Four ornamented ascospores of the Oregon white truffle (Tuber oregonense) inside a single ascus. Each [[ellipsoid spore shows the typical honey-gold colour and ornamentation of polygonal pits bordered by low ridges.]] In fungi, an ascospore is the sexual spore formed inside an ascus, a sac-like cell. Asci define the division Ascomycota, the largest and most diverse division of fungi. Afte

thumb|The sterigmata are the slender extensions that connect the spores (green) to the basidia (red). thumb|The sterigmata remain as small projections on twigs of Picea and [[Tsuga after the leaves have fallen.]] In biology, a sterigma (: sterigmata) is a small supporting structure.

ring like structure sometimes found on the stipe of some species of mushrooms

thumb|240px|right|Fomes fomentarius Amadou is a spongy material derived from Fomes fomentarius and similar fungi that grow on the bark of coniferous and angiosperm trees, and have the appearance of a horse's hoof (thus the name "hoof fungus"). It is also known as the "tinder fungus" and is useful for starting slow-burning fires. The fungus must be removed from the tree, the hard outer layer scraped off, and then thin strips of the inner spongy layer cut for use as tinder.

thumb|right|300px|Agaricus bisporus basidiospores A basidiospore is a reproductive spore produced by basidiomycete fungi, a grouping that includes mushrooms, shelf fungi, rusts, and smuts. Basidiospores typically each contain one haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they are produced by specialized fungal cells called basidia. Typically, four basidiospores develop on appendages from each basidium, of which two are of one strain and the other two of its opposite strain. In gills under a cap of one common species, there exist millions of basidia.

An ascocarp, or ascoma (: ascomata), is the fruiting body (sporocarp) of an ascomycete phylum fungus. It consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae and millions of embedded asci, each of which typically contains four to eight ascospores. Ascocarps are most commonly bowl-shaped (apothecia) but may take on a spherical or flask-like form that has a pore opening to release spores (perithecia) or no opening (cleistothecia).

thumb|300px|Four parallel microscopic views of a growing Neurospora crassa hypha, with the Spitzenkörper clearly visible at the tip (e.g. in red at the bottom lane)

thumb|upright|Peristome of Bryum capillare moss

flowers or leaves that grow directly from the stem or peduncle of a plant

thumb|Diagram of situation of the fungal organelle parenthesome in the cell Within the cells of some members of basidiomycetes fungi are found microscopic structures called parenthesomes or septal pore caps. They are shaped like parentheses and found on either side of pores in the dolipore septum which separates cells within a hypha. Their function has not been established, and their composition has not been fully elucidated. The variations in their appearance are useful in distinguishing individual species. Generally, they are barrel shaped, with an endoplasmic reticulum covering.

A zygospore is a diploid reproductive stage in the life cycle of many fungi and protists. Zygospores are created by the nuclear fusion of haploid cells. In fungi, zygospores are formed in zygosporangia after the fusion of specialized budding structures, from mycelia of the same (in homothallic fungi) or different mating types (in heterothallic fungi), and may be chlamydospores. In many eukaryotic algae, including many species of the Chlorophyta, zygospores are formed by the fusion of unicellular gametes of different mating types.

thumb|right|Gram stain of Candida albicans from a vaginal swab, showing hyphae, and chlamydospores, which are 2–4 μm in diameter. A chlamydospore is the thick-walled large resting spore of several kinds of fungi, including Ascomycota such as Candida, Basidiomycota such as Panus, and various Mortierellales species. It is the life-stage which survives in unfavourable conditions, such as dry or hot seasons. Fusarium oxysporum which causes the plant disease Fusarium wilt is one which forms chlamydospores in response to stresses like nutrient depletion. Mycelia of the pathogen can survive in this m

part of a fungus fruiting body

thumb|Phoma-Coelomycetes Pycnidium A pycnidium (plural pycnidia) is an asexual fruiting body produced by mitosporic fungi, for instance in the order Sphaeropsidales (Deuteromycota, Coelomycetes) or order Pleosporales (Ascomycota, Dothideomycetes). It is often spherical or inversely pearshaped (obpyriform) and its internal cavity is lined with conidiophores. When ripe, an opening generally appears at the top, through which the pycnidiospores escape.

fungal structure

network of inward growing hyphae

fungi that can exist as mold or yeast

linear aggregations of parallel-oriented hyphae

300px|thumb|right|The outer layer of this bird's nest fungus (Crucibulum laeve) is the peridium. thumb|Internal surface of the peridium of the rare Slime mold|myxomycete [[Tubifera dudkae is covered with folds]] The peridium is the protective layer that encloses a mass of spores in fungi. This outer covering is a distinctive feature of gasteroid fungi.

thumb|Paraphyses of the species Glutinoglossum glutinosum as seen under a light microscope.

thumb|Two-celled teliospore of Gymnosporangium globosum Teliospore (sometimes called teleutospore) is the thick-walled resting spore of some fungi (rusts and smuts), from which the basidium arises.

thumb|Soredia on Evernia prunastri Soredia are common reproductive structures of lichens. Lichens reproduce asexually by employing simple fragmentation and production of soredia and isidia. Soredia are powdery propagules composed of fungal hyphae wrapped around cyanobacteria or green algae. These can be either scattered diffusely across the surface of the lichen's thallus, or produced in localized structures called soralia. Fungal hyphae make up the basic body structure of a lichen. The soredia are released through openings in the upper cortex of the lichen structure. After their release, the

A locule (: locules) or loculus (; : loculi) is a small cavity or compartment within an organ or part of an organism (animal, plant, or fungus).

colony containing a fixed number of cells, with little or no specialization

thumb|phialide of Ophiocordyceps termiticola The phialide ( ; , diminutive of phiale, a broad, flat vessel) is a flask-shaped projection from the vesicle (dilated part of the top of conidiophore) of certain fungi. It projects from the mycelium without increasing in length unless a subsequent increase in the formation of conidia occurs. thumb|Diagram showing the phialide with other structures It is the end cell of a phialosphore.

thumb|right|260px|Germinating Conidium|conidiospores of [[Hyaloperonospora parasitica. Observe the appressorium on top right.]] An appressorium is a specialized cell typical of many fungal plant pathogens that is used to infect host plants. It is a flattened, hyphal "pressing" organ, from which a minute infection peg grows and enters the host, using turgor pressure capable of punching through even Mylar.

thumb|A herbarium specimen of the lichen [[Leptogium cyanescens, magnified 40X, with lobule-shaped isidia]]

thumb|left|The earthstar fungus Myriostoma coliforme has multiple ostioles through which spores are released. An ostiole is a small hole or opening through which algae or fungi release their mature spores.

thumb|Coenocyte of Sphaeroforma arctica thumb|Botrydium, showing a coenocytic body A coenocyte () is a multinucleate cell which can result from multiple nuclear divisions without their accompanying cytokinesis, in contrast to a syncytium, which results from cellular aggregation followed by dissolution of the cell membranes inside the mass. The word syncytium in animal embryology is used to refer to the coenocytic blastoderm of invertebrates. A coenocytic colony is referred to as a coenobium (: coenobia), and most coenobia are composed of a distinct number of cells, often as a power of two (4,

group of fungi

single cell, mass of cells, or modified bud of tissue that detaches from the parent and develops into a new individual