Biochemistry

Biochemistry, or biological chemistry (distinct from chemical biology), is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemica

thumb|upright=1.35|alt=image of prokaryotic cell|Diagram of a prokaryotic cell, a Bacteria|bacterium with a flagellum

Pharmacology is the science of drugs and medications, including a substance's origin, composition and interaction with biological systems; specifically through pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, therapeutic use, and toxicology. The discipline examines these interactions through pharmacokinetics (what the body does to the drug) and pharmacodynamics (what the drug does to the body), both of which determine how a substance alters normal or abnormal biochemical function. Substances with medicinal properties are classified as pharmaceuticals, while the term drug encompasses any chemical agent that

thumb|Chemical structure of a polypeptide macromolecule

thumb|200px|A representation of the structure of myoglobin, showing alpha helices, represented by ribbons. This protein was the first to have its structure solved by [[X-ray crystallography by Max Perutz and John Kendrew in 1958, for which they received a Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]

scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places

sub-discipline of applied chemistry

large protein family of receptors that detect molecules outside the cell and activate internal signal transduction pathways and cellular responses

geometric property of some molecules and ions

thumb|440px

thumb|right|The 15-crown-5 [[crown ether, a cyclic oligomer, and its monomer, ethylene oxide.]] In chemistry and biochemistry, an oligomer () is a molecule that consists of a few repeating units which could be derived, actually or conceptually, from smaller molecules, monomers. The name is composed of Greek elements oligo-, "a few" and -mer, "parts". An adjective form is oligomeric.

In chemistry, disproportionation, sometimes called dismutation (the French word), is a redox reaction in which one compound of intermediate oxidation state converts to two compounds, one of higher and one of lower oxidation state. The reverse of disproportionation, such as when a compound in an intermediate oxidation state is formed from precursors of lower and higher oxidation states, is called comproportionation, also known as symproportionation.

chemical element whose concentration (or other measure of amount) is very low

In biochemistry, isozymes (also known as isoenzymes or more generally as multiple forms of enzymes or isoforms) are enzymes that differ in amino acid sequence but catalyze the same chemical reaction. Isozymes usually have different kinetic parameters (e.g. different KM values), or are regulated differently. They permit the fine-tuning of metabolism to meet the particular needs of a given tissue or developmental stage.

Glycosylation is the reaction in which a carbohydrate (or 'glycan'), i.e. a glycosyl donor, is attached to a hydroxyl or other functional group of another molecule (a glycosyl acceptor) in order to form a glycoconjugate. In biology (but not always in chemistry), glycosylation usually refers to an enzyme-catalysed reaction, whereas glycation (also 'non-enzymatic glycation' and 'non-enzymatic glycosylation') may refer to a non-enzymatic reaction.

Putrefaction is the fifth stage of death, following pallor mortis, livor mortis, algor mortis, and rigor mortis. This process references the breaking down of a body of an animal post-mortem. In broad terms, it can be viewed as the decomposition of proteins, and the eventual breakdown of the cohesiveness between tissues, and the liquefaction of most organs. This is caused by the decomposition of organic matter by bacterial or fungal digestion, which causes the release of gases that infiltrate the body's tissues, and leads to the deterioration of the tissues and organs. The approximate time it

study of metals in biology

Bioenergetics is a field in biochemistry and cell biology that concerns energy flow through living systems. This is an active area of biological research that includes the study of the transformation of energy in living organisms and the study of thousands of different cellular processes such as cellular respiration and the many other metabolic and enzymatic processes that lead to production and utilization of energy in forms such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules. That is, the goal of bioenergetics is to describe how living organisms acquire and transform energy in order to perform bi

Phytochemistry is the study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants. Phytochemists strive to describe the structures of the large number of secondary metabolites found in plants, the functions of these compounds in human and plant biology, and the biosynthesis of these compounds. Plants synthesize phytochemicals for many reasons, including to protect themselves against insect attacks and plant diseases. The compounds found in plants are of many kinds, but most can be grouped into four major biosynthetic classes: alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, polyketides, and terpenoids.

scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry

oligomeric or polymeric chemical group that is attached to a core part of the molecule called "main chain" or backbone

interacting selectively and non-covalently with any protein or protein complex (a complex of two or more proteins that may include other nonprotein molecules)

An organotroph is an organism that obtains hydrogen or electrons from organic substrates. This term is used in microbiology to classify and describe organisms based on how they obtain electrons for their respiration processes. Some organotrophs such as animals and many bacteria, are also heterotrophs. Organotrophs can be either anaerobic or aerobic.

portion of a gene's DNA or RNA, composed of exons, that codes for protein; composed of codons, which are decoded, translated into proteins by the ribosome; begins with the start codon and end with a stop codon

is an organic compound with the chemical formula (C6H11N)2C. It is a waxy white solid with a sweet odor. Its primary use is to couple amino acids during artificial peptide synthesis. The low melting point of this material allows it to be melted for easy handling. It is highly soluble in dichloromethane, tetrahydrofuran, acetonitrile and dimethylformamide, but insoluble in water.

thumb|Two enantiomers of a generic amino acid that is chiral

Hydroxybenzotriazole (abbreviated HOBt) is an organic compound with the formula . It is a derivative of benzotriazole. It is a white crystalline powder, which as a commercial product contains some water (~11.7% wt as the HOBt monohydrate crystal). Anhydrous HOBt is explosive. It is mainly used to suppress the racemization and to improve the efficiency of peptide synthesis.

food process

buffer solution commonly used in biological research

biochemical and genetic engineering processes involved in the synthesis, modification, and production of protein products for various applications

class of enzymes

relation between two biopolymers that run parallel to each other but with opposite alignments

body composition elements

Norvaline (abbreviated as Nva) is an amino acid with the formula CH3(CH2)2CH(NH2)CO2H. The compound is a structural analog of valeric acid and also an isomer of the more common amino acid valine. Like most other α-amino acids, norvaline is chiral. It is a white, water-soluble solid.

planned process in synthetic organic chemistry

thumb|upright=1.2|Beer fermenting at a [[brewery]]

chemical compound

assumption that the chemical processes of hypothetical extraterrestrial life must be constructed primarily from carbon

An assay is an investigative (analytic) procedure in laboratory medicine, mining, pharmacology, environmental biology and molecular biology for qualitatively assessing or quantitatively measuring the presence, amount, or functional activity of a target entity. The measured entity is often called the analyte, the measurand, or the target of the assay. The analyte can be a drug, biochemical substance, chemical element or compound, or cell in an organism or organic sample. An assay usually aims to measure an analyte's intensive property and express it in the relevant measurement unit (e.g. molari

aspect of history

The chemical reactions and pathways involving purine nucleotides

Attachment of an oligosaccharide to a nitrogen atom

chemical compound

metabolic pathway by which 3-methyl branched fatty acids are degraded. These compounds are not degraded by the normal peroxisomal beta-oxidation pathway, because the 3-methyl blocks the dehydrogenation of the hydroxyl group by hydroxyacyl-CoA dehyd

'''N-Ethylmaleimide (NEM''') is an organic compound that is derived from maleic acid. It is a unstable substance that reacts rapidly with thiols and is commonly used to modify cysteine residues in proteins and peptides.

right|thumb|400 px|Transmission electron microscope|Transmission electron micrograph of a [[chondrocyte, stained for calcium, showing its nucleus (N) and mitochondria (M).]] Cytochemistry is the branch of cell biology dealing with the detection of cell constituents by means of biochemical analysis and visualization techniques. This is the study of the localization of cellular components through the use of staining methods. The term is also used to describe a process of identification of the biochemical content of cells. Cytochemistry is a science of localizing chemical components of cells and

extracellular non-fibrous substance

intracellular non-membrane-bounded organelle with a matrix of coalesced lipids surrounded by a phospholipid monolayer

diverse intracellular non-living substances

'''N,'-Diisopropylcarbodiimide is a carbodiimide used in peptide synthesis. As a liquid, it is easier to handle than the commonly used N,''-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, a waxy solid. In addition, N,''-diisopropylurea, its byproduct in many chemical reactions, is soluble in most organic solvents, a property that facilitates work-up.

molecular gases which transmit information within organisms, for example NO, CO, H2S, SO2

Pheophorbide or phaeophorbide is a product of chlorophyll breakdown and a derivative of pheophytin where both the central magnesium has been removed and the phytol tail has been hydrolyzed. It is used as a photosensitizer in photodynamic therapy.

chemical compound

chemical compound

thumb|300px|Model of the retromer heteropentameric complex (VPS26A|VPS26 in green; [[VPS35 in orange, and VPS29 in red). The retromer forms a polymeric network arc on the outside (cytoplasmic side) of the endosome tubule. Inside the tubule, the cargo receptor SORL1, forms its own network and binds protein cargo for trafficking. SORL1 connects to retromer on the outside via a transmembrane helix and a short C-terminal tail that binds VPS26. Model built based on structural data by Brett Collins and Yu Kitago.]] Retromer is a complex of proteins that has been shown to be important in recycling tr

graph of enzyme kinetics

chemical compound

biological process of regulation of food intake and energy expenditure

In cellular biology, P-bodies, or processing bodies, are distinct foci formed by phase separation within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell consisting of many enzymes involved in mRNA turnover. P-bodies are highly conserved structures and have been observed in somatic cells originating from vertebrates and invertebrates, plants and yeast. To date, P-bodies have been demonstrated to play fundamental roles in general mRNA decay, nonsense-mediated mRNA decay, adenylate-uridylate-rich element mediated mRNA decay, and microRNA (miRNA) induced mRNA silencing. Not all mRNAs which enter P-bodies are d

Reuterin (3-hydroxypropionaldehyde) is the organic compound with the formula HOCH2CH2CHO. It is a bifunctional molecule, containing both a hydroxy and aldehyde functional groups.